General vocabulary

Foto: eddygomez.blogspot.com

En esta entrada vamos a incluir phrases y expresiones útiles de los niveles B2, C1 y C2. A la izquierda de la mayoría de ellas se puede ver de qué nivel es, según el diccionario online Cambridge. Aunque algunas de las expresiones tratadas no sean del nivel del que te vas a examinar, no te vendrá mal aprenderlas.  Esta entrada se irá completando progresivamente  con más términos, así que estate atent@ a las actualizaciones periódicas de este post. Puedes hacer tus propias aportaciones, consultas o sugerencias a este listado a través de los comentarios.

En este vídeo se explican 10 expresiones informales habituales en inglés, algunas de inglés americano:

1) In layman's terms: Para los profanos o legos en la materia.
I will explain the financial crisis in layman's terms. 

2)C1Let alone. B2Not to mention: Y mucho menos . Y ya no hablemos de..., y para qué hablar de..., por no hablar de..., sin mencionar. Se utilizan estas expresiones para dar énfasis. Registro semi-formal. Puedes emplearlo en opinion articles, reviews, essays, y en general en escritos que tengan un componente de subjetividad. 


Si se utiliza let alone, la frase que le precede debe ser negativa, explícita o implícitamente:
The baby can't even walk, let alone run: El bebé no sabe andar, y mucho menos correr.
I was so ill I wasn't able to get up, let alone work: Estaba tan enferma que no pude levantarme, y mucho menos trabajar.


Not to mention admite frases previas afirmativas o negativas:
The hotel has spacious and tastefully decorated rooms, not to mention excellent customer service: El hotel tiene habitaciones espaciosas y decoradas con gusto, sin mencionar su excelente servicio al cliente.

Pincha aquí para ver más construcciones posibles de let alone y not to mention.

3) B2It goes without saying. C1Needless to say: Ni que decir tiene, no hace falta decir, va implícito, cómo no, por supuesto.  Registro: semi-formal o semi-informal.
Estas expresiones no son formales ni informales completamente, están a medio camino. Se utilizan en el lenguaje hablado pero también en discursos. Asimismo, se suelen ver en articles, reviews, opinion essays. Las evitaría en textos más formales como los reports, CVs o covering letters.

If you take a job as a journalist, it goes without saying that sometimes you'll have to work at weekends: Si trabajas de periodista, no hace falta decir que tendrás que trabajar los fines de semana.

"Poor Threadbear! Imagine having a squeaker that doesn't squeak! No one seems able to mend it, and Threadbear is afraid that Ben won't love him because he's a little bit imperfect. Needless to say, there's a clever solution involving Father Christmas - but I don't want to spoil this brilliant story for you by saying any more than that!". The Guardian.

4) B2In the long run. In the short run: A largo plazo. A corto plazo. Registro: Formal. 

5) On second thoughts (UK) / On second thought (US): Pensándolo mejor... Registro: Informal.
I'd like a cup of coffee, please - actually, on second thoughts, I'll have a beer: Un café, por favor. Bueno, no, pensándolo mejor tomaré una cerveza.


6) C1Far from it: Nada más lejos. Registro: Formal e informal.

- I expect the lecture was boring, wasn't it?
- Far from it - it was the best lecture we've had so far this term.
- Supongo que la clase fue aburrida, ¿no?
- Nada más lejos, fue la mejor clase que hemos tenido hasta ahora en este trimestre.

7) B2As/so far as I know. As/so far as I'm concerned. As/so far as I can tell: Por lo que yo sé. Por lo que a mí respecta, por mí. Por lo que yo entiendo o he observado. Registro: Formal.

He isn't coming today, as far as I know:  Por lo que yo sé, no vendrá hoy.
She can come whenever she likes, as far as I'm concerned:  Por mí, puede venir cuando quiera.
There's been no change, as far as I can tell:  Por lo que yo entiendo, no ha habido ningún cambio.

8)C1Far from sth: Lejos de. Registro: Formal e informal.
The situation is far from clear: La situación está lejos de ser clara.

9) C2Far from being/doing sth: Lejos de ser / hacer algo. Registro: Formal e informal.
She insisted that, far from being easy, it would be a difficult period: Insistió en que, lejos de ser fácil, sería un período difícil.

10) C2Go so far as to say: Atreverse a decir /afirmar, llegar a decir. Registro: Formal e informal.
It's good, but I wouldn't go so far as to say that it's great: Es bueno, pero no me atrevería a decir que es genial / pero tampoco diría que es genial.


11) C2So far, so good: Hasta aquí todo bien, hasta aquí todo normal, por ahora bien, vale. Registro: Formal e informal.

I've found a tin of beans. So far so good, but where is the tin opener?: He encontrado una lata de alubias. Vale, pero ¿dónde está el abrelatas?


- How's your new office assistant getting on?
- So far, so good. He's settling in and there haven't been any big problems.
- Qué tal lo lleva tu nuevo administrativo?
- Por ahora bien. Se está instalando y no ha habido grandes problemas.

- How's the meeting going?
- So far, so good - but they haven't signed the contract yet.
- Qué tal va la reuníón?
- Hasta ahora bien, pero no han firmado el contrato todavía.

12) C1Quid pro quo: En contrapartida, como compensación, una cosa por otra, a cambio de. Registro: Formal e informal.

The government has promised food aid as a quid pro quo for the stopping of violence: El gobierno ha prometido ayuda alimentaria a cambio del fin de la violencia.

13) B2In this/that regard (also, in this/that respect): En este/ese sentido , a este/ese respecto. Registro: Formal.
The union is the largest in the country and in that regard is best placed to serve its members: Es el sindicato más grande del país, y en ese sentido es el que en mejor situación está para servir a sus afiliados.

14) B2In/with regard to. Regarding. In/with reference to. Concerning: Con respecto a. En referencia a. En cuanto a. Registro: Formal.
I am writing to you with regard to your letter of 15 March: Le escribo en referencia a su carta del 15 de marzo.

15) C1Regardless of. Irrespective of: Independientemente de, con independencia de, sin tener en cuenta, sin tener en consideración. Registro: Formal.

All our proposals were rejected regardless of their merits: Todas nuestras propuestas fueron rechazadas sin tener en cuenta sus méritos.

This is a film that can be enjoyed by anyone, irrespective of age: Es una película que puede gustar a cualquiera, independientemente de la edad.


16) B2Strangely enough / Funnily enough: Curiosamente, casualmente, sorprendentemente. Registro: Formal e informal.

Funnily enough, I was just thinking about you when you called: Casualmente, estaba pensando en ti cuando llamaste.


Strangely enough, when it came to the exam I actually felt quite relaxed: Curiosamente, en el momento del examen estaba bastante tranquilo.


17) C1 Thereby / Therein, Therein lies...: De ese modo, por consiguiente, así / Incluído, De ahí, Ahí reside...Registro: Formal.


Diets that are high in saturated fat clog up our arteries, thereby reducING the blood flow to our hearts and brains: Las dietas ricas en gasas saturadas obstruyen las arterias, reduciendo así el flujo sanguíneo al corazón y al cerebro. (nota: observa que el verbo que sigue va en gerundio).


It is a thrilling tale of a haunted house and the ghosts therein: Es una historia escalofriante de una casa encantada con fantasmas incluídos.


Respondents to a Guardian survey of readers on their experience of internet privacy threw up the following frequent complaints:
• Difficulties with erasing social media accounts and ensuring all data therein is deleted... The Guardian


En una encuesta realizada por el diario The Guardian a sus lectores acerca de la privacidad en la red según su experiencia, los encuestados expresaron las siguientes quejas:
- Las dificultades para darse de baja de cuentas de redes sociales y asegurarse de que se borran todos los datos en ellas incluídos...

Downtown Project, says Hsieh, is all about getting people to interact, because therein lie success and happiness: El proyecto Downtown, dice Hsieh, pretende que las personas interactúen, porque ahí residen el éxito y la felicidad. The Guardian

18) C2 Strive to + infinitive / Strive for or after something (past strove /strəʊv/ or strived; past participle striven /ˈstrɪv(ə)n/ or strived): Esforzarse por alcanzar algo, luchar. Es éste un buen verbo que aprender y practicar. La definición proporcionada por el diccionario online Cambridge dice así: "to try very hard to do something or to make something happen, especially for a long time or against difficulties"= intentar con todas tus fuerzas hacer algo o hacer que ocurra algo, especialmente durante un largo período de tiempo o  frente a la adversidad. Define a la perfección casi una filosofía de vida que, sobre todo, en estos momentos de incertidumbre puede servirnos de inspiración para superar toda crisis personal, social, de valores, económica, política o financiera. Registro: Formal.


Aquí tienes algunos ejemplos:

• A principle of need, on the other hand, proposes that we strive for an equal outcome in which all society or group members get what they need. Source: Principles of Justice and Fairness.
• Striving for equality.
• Striving for a fairer world.
• "We must strive to be like the moon"  A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier. Ishmael Beah

19) C2 So to speak: Por así decirlo. Registro: Informal.

In that relationship it's very much Lorna who wears the trousers, so to speak: En esa relación Lorna es quien lleva los pantalones, por así decirlo.

20) B2To some extent: Hasta cierto punto. Registro: Formal e informal.

To some extent, she was responsible for the accident: Hasta cierto punto, ella era responsable del accidente.


21) C2 Mind you: Eso sí; bueno, tampoco te creas (que)... Registro: Informal

He's very untidy about the house; mind you, I'm not much better: Es muy desordenado para la casa; bueno, tampoco te creas, yo no soy mucho mejor.


22) B2 In terms of / In...terms: En cuanto a / En términos, en materia... Registro: Formal e informal


In terms of money, I was better off in my last job: En cuanto a dinero, andaba mejor en el trabajo anterior.

In financial terms, the project was not a success: El proyecto no tuvo éxito en materia económica.


23) C2 By all means: Por supuesto, desde luego, faltaría más. Registro: Formal.

'May I borrow this book?' - 'By all means.': "¿Puedes prestarme este libro?" " Por supuesto."

No confundir con by all possible means, cuyo equivalente en español es "por todos los medios (posibles)":
We must help him by all possible means: Debemos ayudarle por todos los medios.

El opuesto de by all means  no es  C1by no means (o not by any means), cuyo equivalente aproximado en español es "en absoluto" o "de ningún modo" o "de ninguna manera":
'Is that all you've got to say?' - 'By no means.': "¿Es eso todo lo que tienes que decir?" "En absoluto."
Galileo was by no means the first person to use a telescope / Galileo was not by any means the first person to use a telescope: Galileo no fue de ningún modo la primera persona en usar un telescopio.

Fuente: Practical English Usage. Michael Swan. Ed.Oxford.

24) Course of action: Línea de actuación, modo de proceder. Registro: Formal.


Everyone knows something needs to be done to prevent another crisis, but will the G20 leaders agree on a course of action?: Todo el mundo sabe que es necesario hacer algo para evitar otra crisis, pero ¿se pondrán de acuerdo los líderes del G20 sobre la línea de actuación a seguir? The Guardian

25) C2 Verbatim (adverb, adjective) /  B2 Word-for-word (adjective) / B2 To the letter (If you obey instructions or rules to the letter, you do exactly what you have been told to do, giving great attention to every detail):  Al pie de la letra, literalmente. Fuente: Cambridge Dictionaries Online.


She had an amazing memory and could recall verbatim quite complex conversations: Tenía una memoria increíble y podía memorizar conversaciones complejas al pie de la letra.


A verbatim account: Un relato al pie de la letra.

...anyone in the world with an internet connection could follow, raw and verbatim, what officers were saying among themselves: ...desde cualquier lugar del mundo con conexión a internet se podía seguir, en directo y literalmente, lo que los policías hablaban entre sí. The Guardian

I can give you a word-for-word transcript of what we talked about: Te puedo dar la transcripción literal de lo que hablamos.

a word-for-word copy of a government report: una copia literal de un informe del gobierno.

I followed the instructions to the letter and it still went wrong: He seguido las instrucciones al pie de la letra y aun así no ha salido bien.

26) C1 Alongside: Junto a, junto con, conjuntamente, al lado de, codo con codo, con. Registro: Formal e informal.

A car pulled up alongside (ours): Un coche se detuvo junto al nuestro.

Most of the staff refused to work alongside the new team: La mayoría de los trabajadores se negaron a trabajar con el nuevo equipo.


The UK fought alongside France, Turkey, and Sardinia during the Crimean War: El Reino Unido, Francia, Turquía y Cerdeña lucharon conjuntamente / codo con codo durante la guerra de Crimea.


A Buddhist priest in Japan is breaking the mould by offering cocktails alongside prayers and sermons: Un monje budista en Japón rompe el molde  al ofrecer cócteles junto con oraciones y sermones. The Guardian


27) B2 Along with sb/sth: Además de.  Registro: Formal e informal.


California, along with Florida and Hawaii, is among the most popular US tourist destinations: California, además de Florida y Hawai, está entre los destinos turísticos más populares de Estados Unidos.


Yoshinobu Fujioka hands out advice along with his 'soul-cleansing' cocktails, which include 'perfect bliss' and 'infinite hell': Yoshinobu Fujioka ofrece consejo además de sus cócteles "purificadores del alma", entre los que están "dicha perfecta" e "infierno infinito". The Guardian


28) C2 Albeit (conjunction - formal ) / C1 Notwithstanding (preposition, adverb - formal): Si bien, aunque, a pesar de.


He tried, albeit without success: Lo intentó, aunque sin lograrlo.

Meetings are essential, albeit irritating: Las reuniones son esenciales, si bien irritantes. The Guardian

The evening was very pleasant, albeit a little quiet: La velada fue muy agradable, si bien un poco tranquila.

Prince of Wales calls for revolution – albeit a sustainable one: El príncipe de Gales hace un llamamiento a la revolución, si bien una revolución sostenible. The Guardian


> Observa cómo se utiliza albeit, seguido de un sintagma nominal o adjetival y no de una oración.
> Haz clic en la palabra para consultar la pronunciación.

Notwithstanding some members' objections, I think we must go ahead with the plan: A pesar de las objeciones de algunos socios, pienso que debemos seguir adelante con el plan. BBCLearningEnglish

Notwithstanding the global financial crisis, China's economy continues to grow at an impressive rate: A pesar de la crisis financiera mundial, la economía en China continúa creciendo a una velocidad impresionante. BBCLearningEnglish


> Notwithstanding va seguido de un sintagma nominal y, generalmente, al principio de la oración. Pincha aquí para más información sobre este término.
> Haz clic en la palabra para oír la pronunciación.

29) C1 Whatsoever (adverb): En absoluto, para nada, de ninguna manera, de ningún tipo. Registro: Formal e informal.

> Se utiliza detrás de una frase negativa para dar énfasis a la idea expresada.

He has no respect for authority whatsoever: Para nada tiene respeto por la autoridad.


I can honestly say that I have no interest whatsoever in the royal family: Sinceramente no tengo ningún tipo de interés por la familia real.


"Had you any idea what was happening at the time?" "None whatsoever.": "¿Tienes idea de lo que estaba pasando entonces?" "Para nada."

In the US, for example, a 3% increase in GDP tends to be accompanied by a 1% fall in unemployment. In France, the same amount of GDP growth reduces unemployment by only half a percent. In Japan, there is no relationship whatsoever: En Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, un aumento del 3% en el PIB va acompañado de un descenso del desempleo de un 1% y tan sólo de un 0,5% en Francia. En Japón no hay ningún tipo de relación entre el PIB y el desempleo. The Guardian


30) C1Namely (adverb): Concretamente, a saber. Registro: Formal

We need to get more teachers into the classrooms where they're most needed, namely in high poverty areas: Necesitamos más profesores en las aulas donde más se les necesita, concretamente en las zonas más pobres.


Until the competition, Groen has never been to South Africa. When he finally did, one thing struck him very powerfully: namely, the number South Africans (around 25%) who live off the electricity grid and for which his wonderful invention was therefore useless: Hasta el concurso, Groen no había estado nunca en África. Cuando finalmente fue, hubo algo que le llamó poderosamente la atención, concretamente la cantidad de sudafricanos (aproximadamente un 25%) que viven fuera de la red eléctrica y para quienes esta maravilla de invento era, por tanto, inservible. The Guardian


31) Account for sth (phrasal verb): Representar (en el sentido de "ser imagen o símbolo de algo, o imitarlo perfectamente"), dar cuenta de. Registro: Formal.

Students account for the vast majority of our customers: Los estudiantes representan la gran mayoría de nuestros clientes.

That was the period when the government decided that Bangladesh was to become a link on the global commodity chain for garment manufacturing, which now accounts for 80% of its export earnings: En esos años el gobieno decidió que Bangladesh sería un eslabón en la cadena mundial de producción textil, la cual en la actualidad representa el 80% de sus ingresos de exportaciones. The Guardian

I had to account for every penny I spent: Tuve que dar cuena de cada penique gastado.

32) B2For the sake of: Por el bien de, en aras de, en pro de.

Their parents only stayed together for the sake of the children: Sus padres siguieron juntos sólo por el bien de los hijos.


"For the sake of cutting just a few pounds a week from their benefits, families and individuals are being forced out of their homes, to be put up in B&Bs or temporary accommodation that costs us all far more.": "En aras de recortar unas pocas libras a la semana de sus prestaciones, las familias y particulares se están viendo obligados a dejar sus hogares para ser realojados en B&B o en alojamientos temporales cuyo coste es mucho más elevado."The Guardian

33) B2However (adverb):Por muy/mucho/más que.... (a pesar de).


Este uso de nivel avanzado de however es distinto del de however para expresar contraste que habitualmente traducimos por "sin embargo". 


Fíjate en los ejemplos para ver cómo se utiliza:

However hungry I am, I never seem to be able to finish off a whole pizza: Por mucha hambre que tenga, nunca me puedo acabar una pizza entera.


If Emma likes something she'll buy it however much it costs: Si a Emma le gusta algo, se lo compra cueste lo que cueste (otra posible traducción al español de este uso de however).


The justice secretary is a huge fan of outsourcing, and has a talent for ignoring troublesome evidence, however compelling: El ministro de Justicia es un gran fan de externalizar y tiene un talento especial para hacer caso omiso de toda evidencia problemática por muy incontestable que sea. The Guardian

34) B2Roughly (adverb), roughly speaking:Aproximadamente, más o menos, grosso modo.

Este adverbio es un buen sustituto del "more or less" del que tienden los hispanohablantes a abusar cuando hablan inglés. Fíjate en los ejemplos:

We have roughly similar tastes/roughly the same tastes: Tenemos más o menos los mismos gustos.


There has been an increase of roughly 2.25 million: Ha habido un crecimiento de aproximadamente 2,25 millones. Aquí también se podría decir: There has been an increase of approximately 2.25 million.


 But roughly speaking, it is a way of telling a person who is making a political point that they should remember they are speaking from a privileged position, because they are, for example, white, male, heterosexual, able-bodied or wealthy: Pero es más o menos una manera de decirle a una persona que está defendiendo una postura política que debería recordar que está hablando desde una posición privilegiada porque es, por ejemplo blanco, hombre, heterosexual, sano o rico. The Guardian


>  Haz clic en la palabra para escuchar la pronunciación.


35) C1On the basis of / On a regular basis / On a daily basis:
A partir de, basándonos en, según, de acuerdo con / De forma regular, regularmente, con regularidad / Día a día, diariamente.

Decisions were often made on the basis of (= using) incorrect information: Las decisiones se tomaban a partir de información incorrecta. Nota: "En base a" es una expresión incorrecta en español.


She needed coaching on a regular basis: Necesitaba que le dieran clases con regularidad.

A "comprehensive service funded by taxation" continues to represent the heart of the NHS. Its pulse is the hugely impressive sense of vocation that, in spite of recent appalling cases, the majority of NHS staff display on a daily basis for relatively little reward: Un "servicio integral financiado con impuestos" sigue siendo representativo del NHS (National Health Service). Su pulso es el impresionante sentido de la vocación que, a pesar de los desafortunados recientes casos, la mayoría del personal del NHS muestra día a día a cambio de una recompensa relativamente pequeña.The Guardian

36) C1In a nutshell: En resumidas cuentas, en pocas palabras.

Well, to put it in a nutshell, we're lost: Vale, en pocas palabras, estamos perdidos.


37) In a bid to: En un intento de.


...books are getting longer in a crazy bid to confer on the literati's waifs an evolutionary advantage over their peers: ...los libros son cada vez más largos en un intento loco de otorgar a los desvalidos de los literatos una ventaja evolutiva sobre sus iguales. The Guardian

Politics

Vamos a dedicar este post a recopilar términos y expresiones relacionadas con la política, otro de los temas de actualidad del que conviene conocer vocabulario específico así como algunas referencias culturales en torno a los sistemas políticos de los países anglosajones.


Political parties:

Right-wing political party: Partido político de derecha.
Far-right political party: Partido político de extrema derecha.
Left-wing political party: Partido político de izquierda.
Far-left political party: Partido político de extrema izquierda.
Centre political party: Partido político de centro.
Centre-right political party: Partido político de centro derecha.
Centre-left political party: Partido político de centro izquierda.

Radicals (who believe in rapid change) and progressives (who believe in measured, incremental change) vs. conservatives (who believe in preserving the status quo) vs. reactionaries (who believe in changing things to a previous state): Radicales (abogan por un cambio rápido) y progresistas (creen en un cambio mesurado, progresivo) vs conservadores (defienden el mantenimiento del status quo o la situación actual) vs reaccionarios (abogan por el regreso al pasado).

Welfare state: Estado de bienestar.

POLITICS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM:

Constitutional monarchy: The Monarch is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government: Monarquía constitucional: El monarca es el jefe de estado y el primer ministro es el jefe de gobierno.

Executive power, exercised by Her Majesty's Government as well as by the devolved Governments of Scotland and Wales, and the Northern Ireland Executive: El poder ejecutivo recae en el gobierno de Su Majestad así como en los gobiernos descentralizados o autonómicos de Escocia y Gales y en el ejecutivo de Irlanda del Norte.

The United Kingdom government and the Scottish government have agreed to work together to ensure that a referendum on Scottish independence can take place: Los gobiernos del Reino Unido y Escocia han acordado trabajar conjuntamente para garantizar la celebración de un referéndum por la independencia de Escocia.


Legislative power: the two chambers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, as well as the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland assemblies: El poder legislativo: las dos cámaras del parlamento del Reino Unido, la Cámara de los Comunes (la cámara baja, similar al Congreso de los Diputados) y la Cámara de los Lores (la cámara alta, similar al Senado), así como el parlamento escocés y las asambleas de Gales y de Irlanda del Norte.

MP(= Member of Parliament): Parlamentario.

Judicial power: The judiciary: Poder judicial.
The highest national court is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom:  La Corte Suprema del Reino Unido es el más alto tribunal del Reino Unido.

UK political parties:
The Conservative Party (the Tories): El Partido Conservador.
The Labour Party: El Partido Laborista.
The Liberal Democrats: El Partido Liberal Demócrata.
Nationalist parties: Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru (Nationalist Party of Wales), Sinn Féin.
Other political parties

 Este vídeo relata "a lo Monty Phyton" la historia política británica desde 1066 hasta 2008 (es decir, hasta Tony Blair; después fue Primer Ministro Gordon Brown y en la actualidad, como ya sabemos, David Cameron). Fue realizado para l@s alumn@s de "Comparative Politics" del colegio americano Georgetown Day School (GDS). Al final del vídeo hace una comparativa de cargos del colegio con el Gabinete (the Cabinet). Antes de verlo, echa un vistazo a los siguientes términos mencionados que tal vez no conozcas: 

The Chanchellor of the Exchequer: Ministr@ de Hacienda.
The Home Secretary: Ministr@ del Interior.
The Foreign Secretary: Ministr@ de Asuntos Exteriores.
Secretary of Defense: Ministr@ de Defensa.






POLITICS OF THE UNITED STATES:

Federal constitutional republic: República constitucional federal.
The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government: El presidente de Estados Unidos es el jefe de estado y de gobierno.

Executive power is headed by the President: El poder ejecutivo está encabezado por el Presidente.
Legislative power: the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives: El poder legislativo: las dos cámaras del Congreso, que son el Senado y la Cámara de Representantes.
Judicial power / The judiciary: the Supreme Court and lower federal courts: Poder judicial: La Corte Suprema y los tribunales federales.

US political parties:
The Democratic Party: El partido demócrata.
The Republican Party: El partido republicano.
Other political parties



To hold elections: Celebrar elecciones.
Ballot: Voto, papeleta electoral.
Ballot box: Urna.
Go to the polls: Votar, acudir a las urnas.
Polls: Ésta es una palabra polisémica en inglés. Puede hacer referencia a votos, comicios, colegios electorales, sondeo, encuesta... Pincha en el enlace para ver distintos ejemplos.

Elections in the United States:
The President is elected indirectly by the people through an Electoral College: El Presidente es elegido indirectamente por los votantes a través del Colegio Electoral (no confundir con nuestros colegios electorales, lugar donde se va a votar: polling station).


Este vídeo explica de manera sencilla cómo son las elecciones presidenciales norteamericanas en las que no siempre el candidato que más votos obtiene es quien gana las elecciones:





> Quizás te interese la lectura de este breve artículo sobre los lobbies y su influencia en las políticas, del que podrías extraer vocabulario específico sobre el tema:


What is ‘lobbying’ and its link to corruption?

Back-corridor negotiation on proposed legislation is a practice that runs from Brasília to Washington, Bruxelles to ar-Rabāṭ. However, the relationships between policy-makers and interest groups walk a fine ethical line that separates participatory democracy from state capture.

Striking legislative deals are generally considered to be just one part of broader lobbying efforts undertaken by groups advocating for their interests to be represented in the policy-making process. Lobbyists can work in a variety of organisations, such as public affairs and law firms, ‘think tanks’, in-house units of corporations, trade associations or non-governmental organisations. For example, Transparency International (TI) regularly lobbies at G8 meetings for the enforcement of anti-corruption conventions. Gaining access to decision-makers and helping to shape the political developments in a country are just two objectives of an ambitious lobbyist.

Lobbying has experienced remarkable growth in recent years. There are now an estimated 15,000 lobbyists who have put down their roots in Brussels, striving for their voice to be heard by the EU. In the US, American lobbying expenses have almost doubled over the last decade, reaching US$ 2.8 billion in 2007.

Yet when large business interests and corporations become involved, there is a danger that the tenuous balance between legitimate and illegitimate lobbying activities will be quickly lost and that the scales can tip towards undue influence gained through corrupt practices.

This problem is reflected in the definition of lobbying, as set forth in TI’s ‘Anti-Corruption Plain Language Guide’:

“Any activity carried out to influence a government or institution’s policies and decisions in favour of a specific cause or outcome. Even when allowed by law, these acts can become distortive if disproportionate levels of influence exist — by companies, associations, organisations and individuals.”

But how does lobbying cross the line to become corruption? TI’s Global Corruption Report 2009: Corruption and the Private Sector takes this question to task. The report breaks down the issue of lobbying, explaining how businesses with extensive funds to back their lobbying activities and close relationships with lawmakers can gain disproportionate access to the policy-making process in ways that are unavailable to the common citizen. When safeguards for transparency and accountability are limited, this can lead to illegal, undue and unfair influence in a country’s policies and politics.

Science

Aquí encontrarás algunos términos y expresiones relacionadas con el tema Science para nuestro banco léxico. Recuerda que tus sugerencias, consultas y aportaciones al respecto son más que bienvenidas.


Watch this video about three chemistry experiments that changed the world:






Achievements, advances and contributions of modern medical science:Logros, avances y contribuciones de la medicina moderna:


The eradication of infectious diseases: La erradicación de enfermedades infecciosas.

The prevention of nutritional deficiencies: La prevención de deficiencias nutricionales.

Successful treatments for once deadly infections: Tratamientos eficaces para infecciones antes mortales.
Without science, many people alive today would have instead died of diseases that are now easily treated.

The discovery of antibiotics: El descubrimiento de los antibióticos.

The discovery of vaccines: El descubrimiento de las vacunas.

General anesthesia put an end to much of the pain of operations.

The discovery of DNA structure: At this point in time, the benefits of gene therapy are more promise than reality.  There's another potential benefit to the unravelling of DNA: predicting the likelihood of disease by looking at your genetic code.

Advance in medical human cloning: Avances en la clonación humana con fines médicos o terapeúticos :

Embryonic stem cells: Células madre embrionarias.

Early-stage embryos: Embriones en fase temprana (blastocitos - 5 ó 6 días de desarrollo).

APPLICATIONS OF THERAPEUTIC CLONING: This finding offers new ways of generating stem cells for patients with dysfunctional or damaged tissues and organs: Este hallazgo proporciona nuevas formas de generar células madre para pacientes con tejidos u órganos disfuncionales o dañados. The Guardian

THE TECHNIQUE: ...they fuse a skin cell and an egg with its nucleus removed, then apply an electric shock to make the resulting cell grow. The process has worked in some animals, but until now had failed in humans: ...fusionan una célula adulta de la piel y un óvulo, al que se le ha extraído el núcleo; luego se le aplica una descarga eléctrica para hacer que la célula resultante crezca. La técnica ha funcionado en algunos animales, pero hasta ahora había fallado en personas. The Guardian

The cloned embryos were used as a source of stem cells, which can make new heart muscle, bone, brain tissue or any other type of cell in the body: Los embriones clonados se usaban como fuente de células madre para generar nuevas células del corazón, óseas, del tejido cerebral o cualquier otro tipo de célula del cuerpo. BBC News


ETHICAL ISSUES : Opponents of the new technique argue that all embryos, whether created in the lab or not, have the potential to go on to become a fully-fledged human, and as such it is morally wrong to experiment on them: Los que están en contra de la nueva técnica sostienen que todo embrión, creado o no en el laboratorio, puede seguir desarrollándose hasta convertirse en una persona con todas las de la ley, y como tal es inmoral experimentar con ellos. BBC News


However advocates of the new technique say that the embryos created from this technique could never become viable human beings: Sin embargo, los defensores dicen que los embriones creados mediante esta técnica nunca podrían convertirse en seres humanos. BBC News




Earth Science: Ciencias de la Tierra
Earth scientists use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.

The formal discipline of Earth sciences include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth.





Benefits of science:

• Science has provided comfort to human beings: Household appliances (electrodomésticos), air-conditioner, heater...
  
• There is a wide variety of means of transportation (medios de transporte) such as buses, cars, trains and aeroplanes, which have shortened distances.
• Advances in medical care and pharmacological interventions have increased our life expectancy (esperanza de vida).
• Science provides us with knowledge and a greater understanding of the world around us.

Negative impact of science:

• The industrial development has brought significant environmental damage and new diseases.
• The development of destructive weapons.
• The cruelty of animal testing.

> Lee este artículo acerca de la diferencia entre los términos "descubrimiento" e "invento". Fíjate en las expresiones idiomáticas y conectores destacados, que puedes incorporar a tus escritos.


Difference Between Discovery and Invention

Discovery vs Invention

In a casual everyday conversation, one would most likely interchange the words ‘discovery’ and ‘invention’, nonchalantly so. Many would settle with the presumption that these are one and the same. On the other hand, there are those who would like to debate that they are entirely different for a good number of ineligible reasons. And the determining factor, the object they point to. Rule of thumb is that discoveries apply to those that have been long existent, while inventions, to those that have never existed in the past.

To invent is akin to creating something completely distinct and was non-existent prior to the act. In natural sciences, a thing or an instance is considered as such when it is embodied in artifacts, tools, machinery etc. Examples of inventions would be wheels, automobile, scissors, umbrella, ballpoint pen, telephone and so on. Inventions are derived from materials that have been previously discovered and even from a collection and integration of earlier inventions. For instance, the wheel is an invention derived from wood, rubber or metal – materials that have been in existence ever since. Another example – the ballpoint pen is an invention that integrated prior discoveries and inventions such as ink, metal, and plastic tube. In other words, it is an integration of materials that produced an entirely distinct tool. To invent is to plan and produce something to meet a specific purpose. For instance, the invention of scissors was driven by the need for a tool that can cut objects efficiently and meticulously. It was designed for a specific purpose.

Discovery is an entirely different thing. It is to detect something new. Note the verb ‘to detect’. It does not necessarily mean to create or produce the object of discovery, but rather it is to make it known. Most importantly, discoveries apply to any natural occurrence. Isaac Newton discovered gravity; he did not invent it. Scientifically speaking, gravity is something that has already existed even before the Earth was formed. Newton did not create it. He detected and gave a name to it. Discoveries let people know and recognize factual occurrences that have existed long before. For instance, before Newton gave a distinction to what we now call gravity, the public were not aware or consciously concerned of it. The discovery of it led to public awareness. It made them understand the concept behind such force and not to mention, led to further ground-breaking discoveries that unraveled how the universe works. Like inventions, discoveries can be purposely planned through explorations or can be unexpected as well. For example, guys at NASA send teams to conduct space exploration partly for new discoveries. They may have or not have a hint of what they are about to find.

By and large, invention and discovery work hand in hand. As mentioned earlier, inventions are a result of materials and occurrences discovered even prior to the thought of coming up with the invention. A good example would be the automobile, an original creation derived from metals, gas, rubber and other raw materials that were apparently discovered even before the conception of such invention. In the same manner, discoveries are sometimes made known through the help of inventions. For instance, the invention of the space shuttle led to discoveries about the moon and planets neighboring Earth.

_____________________________________________________

Summary
A discovery pertains detecting something new. An object of discovery has already been existent prior to the actual discovery.
An invention is an original concept or thing that has not been existent prior to actual invention.
A discovery pertains to natural occurrences while an invention, to man-made artifacts, tools, processes etc.
Discovery and invention work hand in hand. Inventions are an integration of things that have already been discovered in the same way that new discoveries can be found through the help of inventions.
Source: Difference Between.net

Technology

Las nuevas tecnologías tan presentes en nuestras vidas puede ser también un tema que tratar en los writing, especialmente en los argumentative essays y articles, analizando, por ejemplo, sus ventajas y desventajas. He aquí algunos de los términos más utilizados:


The digital revolution=The so called third industrial revolution (la llamada tercera revolución industrial)
Digital computing and communication technology.
The beginning of the Information Age.
The digital revolution converted technology that was previously analogue (US: analog) into a digital format.
WWW= World Wide Web

Converted technologies:
From analogue (US: analog) broadcasting to digital broadcasting: De la televisión analógica a la televisión digital.
From payphone to mobile phone (US: cell phone).
From gramophone record to CD and MP3.
From VHS tape to DVD and Blu-ray.
From analogue (US: analog) photography (film photography) to digital photography.
From typewriter to printer.
From mail to email.
Digital cable.

Smartphone, Iphone, MP3, MP4 Music Players,  Ebook (vs printed book), tablet computer, Ipod, personal computer (PC), laptop (portátil) computer, desktop (sobremesa) computer, video game (videojuego), PlayStation, Nintendo Wii, console.
Mobile phone (US: cell phone) battery charger: Cargador del móvil


Socio-economic impact of the digital revolution:
Positive effects:

• Easier communication.
• Innovations in industry.
• Digital technologies have significantly increased the productivity and performance of businesses.
• Easier access to information. There have been huge benefits to society from the digital revolution, especially in terms of the accessibility of information.

Negative effects:

• Information overload: Sobrecarga de información.
• Social isolation, the great contradiction in the Information Age: Aislamiento social, la gran contradición en la era de la información.
• Internet predators, cyberbullying: Depredadores cibernéticos, ciberacoso.
• Privacy invasion.
• Pornography being more readily available to minors.
• Mass surveillance: Control / vigilancia de masas.
• Human and environmental impacts of the metals used to make electronic goods. The mines from which these metals are extracted are notorious for their great toll of human lives and ecosystems, specially for the fact that children work there in terrible conditions: Impacto humano y medioambiental de los metales utilizados para fabricar productos electrónicos. Es sabido el peaje que se paga en vidas humanas y ecosistemas por la explotación de las minas de las que se extraen estos metales, especialmente por el hecho de que hay niños que trabajan en condiciones terribles. The Guardian

The digital revolution may lead to digital cities sometime in the future.

Browser: Navegador.
(Web) browse: Navegar (por internet).
It goes without saying that students use Wikipedia extensively, probably more than any other social group. Although the website's founder Jimmy Wales once warned readers not to use the website for academic purposes, American research shows that the majority of students browse its pages when researching essays: No hace falta decir que los estudiantes utilizan mucho Wikipedia, probablemente más que cualquier otro grupo social. Aunque el fundador del sitio web, Jimmy Wales, advirtió a los lectores que no lo usaran con fines académicos, estudios americanos muestran que la mayoría de los estudiantes navegan por sus páginas cuando necesitan documentarse para hacer sus trabajos. The Guardian
Social networking: Redes sociales.
Social media: Medios (de comunicación) sociales.
The world's largest social network: Facebook.


 >Lee este artículo sobre Facebook. ¿Crees que es exagerado?:
He destacado expresiones y alguna estructura de nivel avanzado para que las incorpores a tu patrimonio léxico. Quizás encuentres tú más phrases que te llamen la atención.


10 Ways Facebook Can Ruin Your Life
 Jul 19, 2010, by kate Dailey

As Facebook prepares to welcome its 500 millionth friend, a look at all the ways social networking can wreak havoc in your life.

This week Facebook will register its 500 millionth member. It's a milestone both significant and meaningless: yes, it's a reminder of just how big the social-media giant has become, but really—did we need reminding? That Facebook is a part of many Americans' daily lives is clear. But how it's affecting those lives is still being examined. We know that Facebook can be good for your health, and that it can make everything from networking to sharing photos easier. But there's also a potentially sinister side, even aside from dubious privacy issues. Below, 10 ways that Facebook can do more harm than good.

1. You'll be reunited with your biological parents. This can be good news, but it's not always. Take Prince Sagala, who found her biological children on Facebook—children she alleges were kidnapped more than a decade ago by her ex-husband. The mom and kids are now reunited. The only problem: the kids grew up with their dad and don't want anything to do with the parent who now has custody. And in an even more horrifying story, Aimee Sword was sentenced to nine to 30 years in prison recently for sexually abusing her 15-year-old biological son, whom she tracked down on Facebook.

2. Your creditors can track you down. Creditors use Facebook as a way to both track the movements of debtors and keep their eyes on any potential assets that could be seized to cover those debts. At first, lenders may use Facebook to determine whether you're a worthy candidate for a loan. But should you come to owe a creditor money, the company can track you down and discover your assets by monitoring your Facebook feed.

3. Your insurers can deny your claims. Remember the woman who was receiving workers' compensation for depression, only to be "outed" by Facebook pictures of her smiling? Her insurance benefits were cut off, with insurers saying that her photos showed she was ready to return to work. That's left attorneys who argue for disability benefits concerned. Many now advise against giving away too much on Facebook.

4. Your ex can use it against you in a divorce. Facebook is a popular tool for divorce attorneys, who comb pages of their clients' spouses for evidence of neglect, infidelity, or deception. (One study suggests that Facebook comes up in one out of five new divorce petitions). Mashable says a woman lost custody of her children after her ex proved she was spending time tending her crops on Farmville instead of spending quality time with her kids, while divorce lawyers have given multiple interviews extolling the site's virtues as a way to air damaging dirty laundry.

5. It could make you depressed. Researchers from Stony Brook University in New York found that teenage girls who spend the most time discussing their lives with friends were more likely to be depressed. Apparently, spending too much time dwelling on gossip and your problems can make you feel worse, not better. The researchers didn't study Facebook in particular, but they indicated that social-networking sites such as Facebook made it easier for people to be in constant contact with friends and perpetuate the unhealthy discussions.

6. It can cost you a job. A British survey of employers found that half of those polled had turned down job candidates once something unsavory about that candidate surfaced on Facebook. (Examples include tales of drunkenness, photos of illegal activity, and bad grammar.) In the U.S., 20 percent of employers admit to scoping out the Facebook pages of potential job candidates, while 9 percent say they're going to start soon.

7. It can out you to your family. Even if you're discreet on Facebook, your loose-lipped friends might not be and could post comments on your wall that betray your secrets. But there are also more insidious outings going on: MIT students designed an algorithm that successfully pinpointed gay users by analyzing how many of their friends were gay.

8. It can make it easier for your stalker or abusive partner to follow your movements. Let's be honest: if there weren't Facebook, abusers would find another trigger to set off their rage. But Facebook has made it easier for these people to keep tabs on their victims and respond to their movements, even after the victim has tried to sever ties. In one particularly sad case, a woman who changed her Facebook status to "single" was killed by her husband, from whom she had separated. After seeing her status, he broke into her home and stabbed her repeatedly.

9. You can be sued for libel. There are already several cases of libel suits over content posted on Facebook. In Britain, where libel is easier to prove than in the U.S., a businessman won £22,000 when a former classmate created a fake profile full of defamatory information. Stateside, an Ohio-area band sued a Facebook "hate group," and a Michigan towing company sued a student who created a Facebook page alleging that the company tows legally parked cars. (The company says those claims are false.) So far, the law appears to be on the poster's side. But it's still a hassle.

10. Your kids could be targeted by predators. After a teenage girl in England was murdered by a sex offender who posed as a teenager on Facebook, the British version of the site added a "panic button" that allows teens to report any unwanted attention—including cyber-bullying—directly to the authorities. But the button is not yet on U.S. or other international versions of Facebook, and it's unclear whether the company plans to add it.  Source: THE DAILY BEAST